Sudan : Post Independence
The rule of Gaafar Nimeiry (1969-1985) and the first decade of Omar al-Bashir's regime (1989-1999)âare two of the most critical and heavily studied eras in modern Sudanese history.
A great deal of excellent critical analysis exists, ranging from foundational academic histories to specific monographs focusing on the politics, conflicts, and ideologies that defined those times. Here is a guide to some of the key authors and books for your research.
đ Foundational Histories (Covering Both Eras) Before diving into the specific regimes, you may find it helpful to have a broader academic history that provides context. These are considered standard texts:
"A History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Day" by P. M. Holt and M. W. Daly. This is arguably the most essential foundational text. M. W. Daly, in particular, is a preeminent historian of modern Sudan, and the later editions of this book contain a chapter specifically on the Nimeiry era and the rise of al-Bashir.
"The Sudan Handbook" edited by John Ryle, Justin Willis, Suliman Baldo, and Jok Madut Jok. This is an invaluable collection of essays. Look for the chapter by Peter Woodward titled "Sudan's Fragile State, 1956â1989," which provides a direct critical overview of the Nimeiry period and the context for al-Bashir's coup.
"The Root Causes of Sudan's Civil Wars" by Douglas H. Johnson. This book is essential for understanding why these regimes were defined by conflict. It masterfully analyzes the Nimeiry-era policies (like the 1983 imposition of Sharia) that led to the Second Civil War, which was the backdrop for al-Bashir's entire first decade.
đ´ The Gaafar Nimeiry Years (1969-1985) Nimeiry's 16-year rule is fascinating for its dramatic ideological shifts, from a Pan-Arab socialist to an ally of the US and, finally, to an Islamist autocrat.
"Sudan after Nimeiri" edited by Peter Woodward. This is a direct hit for your request. It's a collection of critical essays published in 1991, analyzing the political, economic, and social wreckage of the Nimeiry regime and its immediate aftermath. It directly addresses the causes of his downfall, the failure of his economic policies, and the consequences of his 1983 "Islamic revolution."
"Sudan: State and Society in Crisis" by John O. Voll (Editor). This book provides context on the social and political dynamics, with strong analysis of the rise of political Islam, which Nimeiry first co-opted and then embraced.
Key Author: Peter Woodward. Any work by Woodward on Sudan from this period will be a critical, insightful analysis. He wrote extensively on the state's fragility and the dynamics of the civil war.
Key Themes to Research for this Era:
The "May Revolution" of 1969.
The 1971 communist coup attempt and Nimeiry's subsequent pivot away from the left.
The Addis Ababa Agreement (1972), which ended the First Civil War, and its eventual breakdown.
The "National Reconciliation" of 1977, which brought Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi into his government.
The "September Laws" of 1983, Nimeiry's sudden imposition of Sharia law, which is widely seen as the primary catalyst for the Second Civil War (SPLA/M) and his eventual downfall in the 1985 popular uprising.
⍠The First Decade of al-Bashir (1989-1999) This period is defined by the 1989 coup, the alliance between the military (al-Bashir) and the National Islamic Front (led by Hassan al-Turabi), and the creation of an Islamist state.
"Revolutionary Sudan: Hasan al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2000" by Robert O. Collins & J. Millard Burr. This is the single most specific and essential book for your request. It is a detailed, book-length analysis of this exact decade, focusing on the NIF's ideology, its project to remake the state and society, and the internal power struggles that defined the al-Bashir/al-Turabi partnership.
"Facing Genocide: The Nuba of Sudan" (1995) by Alex de Waal. De Waal is one of the most important critical analysts of this period. This book is a harrowing, contemporary report on the NIF regime's brutal "jihad" campaign in the Nuba Mountains, exposing the ideological and military nature of the government during its first decade.
"Famine Crimes: Politics and the Disaster Relief Industry in Africa" (1997) by Alex de Waal. This book includes a deep-dive, critical analysis of the 1990s Sudanese regime, arguing that it systematically used mass starvation as a weapon of war, particularly in the South.
"The Black Book: Imbalance of Power and Wealth in the Sudan" (2000). This is a crucial primary document. It was an anonymous pamphlet published by disaffected Islamists from Darfur (now known to be associated with the future Justice and Equality Movement) that used the regime's own data to prove the state's power and wealth was monopolized by a small elite from the North. It is a powerful internal critique that signaled the fragmentation of the Islamist project at the end of its first decade.
Key Themes to Research for this Era:
The 1989 "Revolution of National Salvation" coup.
The National Islamic Front (NIF), the ideology of Hassan al-Turabi, and the regime's role as a host for international Islamist figures in the early 1990s.
The total escalation of the Second Civil War against the SPLA, including the declaration of jihad and the use of famine as a weapon.
The creation of the Popular Defence Forces (PDF), a parallel Islamist militia.
The 1999 political split, or "al-Mufasala," between al-Bashir and al-Turabi, where al-Bashir outmaneuvered his ideological mentor to secure sole power.
Scholarship on Sudan
The scholarly books and critical analyses on Sudanâs post-independence history, particularly focusing on the post Independence
Here are several excellent scholarly books on Sudanâs post-independence history, particularly covering the Nimeiry and al-Bashir periods:
General Post-Independence History
âThe History of the Sudan: From the Coming of Islam to the Present Dayâ by P.M. Holt and M.W. Daly - A comprehensive introductory history that includes chapters on the Nimeiry regime and extends coverage through the late 1990s.
âA History of Modern Sudanâ by Robert O. Collins (2008) - Written by one of the premier scholars of Sudan, this traces 200 years of Sudanese history with detailed attention to post-independence events, including both the Nimeiry and al-Bashir periods.
On the Nimeiry Period (1969-1985)
âNimeiri and the Revolution of Dis-Mayâ by Mansour Khalid (1985) - A critical account by a former cabinet member who served under Nimeiry, offering insider perspectives on the regime.
âCivil Uprisings in Modern Sudan: The âKhartoum Springsâ of 1964 and 1985â by W.J. Berridge (2015) - Provides the first scholarly book-length history of the 1985 uprising that overthrew Nimeiry, with extensive archival research and Arabic sources. This book examines both the 1964 uprising that ended the Abboud regime and the 1985 intifada that ended Nimeiryâs rule.
On the First Decade of al-Bashirâs Rule (1989-1999)
âRevolutionary Sudan: Hasan Al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2000â by Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins (2003) - Provides extensive documentation on the first decade of the al-Bashir regime and the role of Hassan al-Turabi, the Islamist ideologue who was the power behind the throne.
âSudan in Turmoil: Hasan Al-Turabi and the Islamist State, 1989-2003â by J. Millard Burr and Robert O. Collins - An updated version covering al-Turabiâs dominance of Sudanese policy through the 1990s and early 2000s.
âHasan al-Turabi: Islamist Politics and Democracy in Sudanâ by W.J. Berridge (2017) - A comprehensive scholarly study of al-Turabiâs life, ideas, and political career, essential for understanding the 1990s Islamist project in Sudan.
âOmar Al-Bashir and Africaâs Longest Warâ by Paul Moorcraft (published by Casemate) - A military history covering al-Bashirâs entire period, with attention to the early years of his rule.
These books offer critical, well-researched analyses drawing on archival sources, interviews, and Arabic-language materials. Collins and Berridge are particularly respected scholars in the field, and Mansour Khalidâs insider account provides unique perspectives on the Nimeiry years.
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